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science
The science of the method of interpretation, observation, and experiments to study the form of system, natural phenomena, and social phenomena sometimes includes its applications (using the above three scientific methods to explain.)
For American academic journals named after this, please see “Science (Journal)”.For the Chinese journal of the same name, please see “Science (Chinese Magazine)”.For other meanings of science, please see “Science (Disadvantage)”.
The universe, a series of disc “slices” that changes over time, the timeline is from left to right.
Science (the source of words is Latin “Scientia”, which means “knowledge”) [1] is a systematic knowledge system. It accumulates and organizes and can test interpretation and predictions about the universe [2] [a].Scientifically emphasizes the specificity of the prediction results and the proven pseudo -pseudo, which is different from the vast philosophy.Science is not the same as seeking absolute truth, but on the basis of existing, it is constantly approaching the truth.Therefore, the development history of science is a history of correction of human understanding of the universe.
The source of science can be traced back to ancient Egypt and the Lianghe Basin from about 3500 to 3000 BC [3] [4].The achievements of these two civilizations in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine have been introduced and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical age. The latter officially tried to explain events in the material world with natural reasons [3] [4].After the Western Roman Empire was covered, in the first few centuries of the Middle Ages (about 400 to 1000 AD), the knowledge of the world’s world concept (English: History of Science in Classical Antique) was gradually forgotten in Western Europe. [5], But it was preserved in the Muslim world in the Islamic Golden Age [6].From the 10th century to the 13th century, Western Europe recovered the ancient Greek’s works and absorbed the research of Islamic scholars. Natural philosophy resurrected this [5] [7], and then transformed in the scientific revolution in the 16th century. [8]The new concepts and new discoveries in the meantime are separated from the ancient Greek concepts and traditions [9] [10] [11] [12].Scientific methods quickly play a greater role in acquiring knowledge, but scientific institutionalization and professionalization still have to wait until the 19th century (English: 19th Century in Science) to start molding [13] [14] [15].
Science originally refers to the exploration and summary of the laws of natural phenomena, but the humanities are increasingly being named “science”.Modern science can generally be divided into three branches: formal science (such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science), and study abstract concepts; natural sciences (such as biology, chemistry, physics, geography)Research on nature; and social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology), and study individuals and society.However, there are different opinions on whether formal science can be counted as a class of science [16] [17] because it does not rely on experience evidence (English: Empirical Evidence) [18].The use of existing scientific knowledge to achieve practical purpose, such as engineering and medicine, is classified as applied science [19] [20] [21] [22].
Science is based on research, and research is usually conducted in academic (English: Academic Institution) and research institutions, as well as government agencies and companies.The actual impact of scientific research has formulated scientific policies (English: Science Policy), in order to impact into the scientific community and promote priority development of commercial products, weapons, medical care and environmental protection.
meaning
“Science” is not good to be accurately defined in short text.Generally speaking, science covers three meanings:
Observation: Deliven to reveal the truth of nature, and the natural effects are fully observed or studied (including ideological experiments), usually referring to the necessary methods, or scientific methods, a set of procedures for evaluating experience and knowledge,Do it.
Assuming: Through this process, assume the systemicity of organizational system knowledge.
Testing: This verifies the reliability and validity of the research goals.
Science includes basic science and applied science.Basic science is only for the purpose of exploring the principle of natural principles through experiments. The results are generally not easy to obtain applied in the short term, such as physics, chemistry, biology, and geology.Such as medical, pharmacy, applied optics, meteorology, scientific and technological archeology and game theory.Theoretically, science is different from pure technical disciplines, and the latter only involves the use of existing knowledge and principles for invention and creation, but only brings technological changes.He Lin Xue.Applied science and pure technology are sometimes difficult to define.Because science and technology are often mentioned together, important technological development is sometimes regarded by the public as scientific achievements. For example, a major reason for Yuan Longping has not commented on the academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences three times that hybrid rice is often considered to be considered in the scientific community.Engineering achievements, not scientific achievements.[23] Volkswagen’s debate about Edison is also similar to that of scientists.Does some discipline focus on basic research or application research may change over time.For example, the predecessor of astronomy is used for divination and belongs to the applied discipline (at that time it was not scientific); astronomy is currently based on basic research, but there are also a few who emit the cosmic satellite and other minorities that can bring substantial services (such as such as substantial services (such as such as substantial services (such as such as substantial services (such as such as substantial services (such as such as the universe satellite (such asTechnical application of radio broadcasting and mobile phone signals); the future of astronomy to realize the development of interstellar immigrants and space resources may become a discipline based on application.
Source of language
It is said that the text, the scripture, the subject, the word: “from the He Cong, the quantity of the fighter”;
From the Tang Dynasty to modern times, “science” as a slight language of “imperial examinations”. Although the term “science” occasionally appeared in Chinese classics, the concepts involved in the term “science” in ancient Chinese and modern Chinese”Science” is different, mostly refers to the “imperial examination” [24] [25].The earliest use of the word “science” seems to be traced back to Luo Luo in the end of the Tang Dynasty [24] [26] [27].
The term “science” is first used in the modern Japanese academic community to first translate the “science” in English and the corresponding vocabulary in other European languages. In European language, the word comes from Latin “Scientia”, which means “knowledge” and “learning” and “knowledge””In modern times, focusing on the knowledge of nature.
From the end of the Japanese Shogunate to the Meiji period, “science” was a special “individual knowledge”, and some were used in the meaning of “science of division”.
In the first year of the Meiji, the first scientific entry book “Poor Story”, which was written by Fukuya Yoshio, was published.At the same time, when the language of “Science” entered during the Meiji era, Enlightenment thinkers used “Science” as a translated word [26].
After the Sino -Japanese War of the Sino -Japanese War, China set off a climax of learning modern Western technology. In the late Qing Dynasty, it mainly learned modern science and technology through the road of modernization.Fan Hongye, Wu Fengming, etc. believe that the earliest scholars in China’s use of “science” are probably Kang Youwei.In his published “Japanese Books” [28], he listed books such as “Getting Started” and “Principles of Science”.During the 1911 Revolution, the frequency of Chinese people’s use of the word “science” gradually increased, and the words “science” and “Gezhi” coexisted.During the period of the Republic of China, through the scientific communication activities of the Chinese Sciences Society, the word “science” replaced “Gezhi”.
Yan Fu first translated Science with “West Scholarship”, and later borrowed Science’s Japanese translation “Science”.Zhang Taiyan, a well -known thinker and politician, clearly requested the name “science”.In August 1903, he published the article “On the Surgery of” Restoration “”, which was very inappropriate for the use of the name “Physics” to translate the name of “grid”.[29]
The Modern Chinese Dictionary published by the Institute of Language of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 1978 believes that science is:
Reflects the knowledge system of objective laws of nature, society [B], thinking, etc.;
Combined with science (spiritual, method, etc.).
However, the research of social disciplines is not easy to achieve objective analysis.On the one hand, it is difficult to control variables, and on the other hand, it is difficult to give accurate applicable scope and strict prediction results.
The meaning of the term “science (science)” in English is divided into narrow sense and general.The disciplinary disciplines with application purposes are different; the latter refers to the application science of various research mechanisms, but it is also different from engineering, technical, and computer informatics that are purely researching technology applications and not exploring mechanisms.However, more and more humanities, computer disciplines and even literature also like to add the title of “science”.
Ancient Chinese titles
In Chinese tradition, all knowledge is collectively referred to as “learning”, and in ancient times, the knowledge of natural matter was called “physics” [C].Therefore, ancient physics is natural science, and mathematics is independent of “physics”.
history
Main strip: history of science
In the broad sense, sciences already exist in many civilizations in history before recent times. [30]Modern science has its own specific methods and successful results. Therefore, at present, the meaning of the word science is mostly limited to modern science [31] [d].However, the original meaning of the word science is a kind of knowledge, not to refer to a special word for the process of exploring such knowledge.Specifically, its original intention refers to the kind of knowledge that people can communicate and share.For example, for a long time before recorded history, people have accumulated knowledge about the operation of natural things, and gradually developed complex abstract thinking ability.Such as formulating complex calendar, which makes poisonous plants become edible technology, and public engineering of national scale such as reservoirs on the Hongpan Plain on the Yangtze River [32], dams, river embankments and other buildings, as well as buildings such as pyramids, All are reflected in this ability.This type of knowledge does not change with the differences in the community; however, at the time, it did not consistent and consciously distinguish it from another type of knowledge related to the community, such as myths and legal systems.Metal smelting has appeared in prehistoric, and the earliest that the first bronze alloys were prepared for were VINčA Culture.Alchemy is speculated that it has gradually developed from the early experiments of heating and mixed materials.
Early civilization
Main strip: science of early civilization (English: History of Science in Early Cultures))
The clay model of animal liver was determined from the 19th century to the 18th century BC, and found in the palace of (Syria) Mali
There is no “nature” or “science” position in the conceptual map of the ancient east [33].Ancient residents in the two river basins used their knowledge about the nature of various natural chemicals to create pottery, Faince (Faince), glass, soap, metal, lime mud (English: Lime Plaster)), And waterproof materials [34]; out of the needs of divination, they also studied the physiology, anatomy and behavior of animals, and made large -scale observations for the operation of celestial bodies in order to study astrology [35].Residents of the two river basins have strong interest in medicine (English: Babylonian Medicine) [34], the earliest prescription appeared in the Third dynasty of Ur (about 2112 BCE -2004 BCE), which was written in Sumerian [36].However, these ancient residents seemed to have no interest in collecting information for collecting information for nature [34], and the scientific categories they studied were mainly limited to those who had obvious practical applications or directly related to their religious systems.[34].
Classic era
Main strip: science in classical era (English: History of Science in Classical Antiquity))
See: Nature (Philosophy) (English: Nature (Philosophy))
In the world of classical times, there is no role that corresponds to modern scientists.Some people who have received good education, usually belong to the upper class, and are almost all men will conduct a variety of inquiry of nature, as long as they can take time [37].Prior to the concept of the former Socrates philosopher invented or discovered the concept of “nature” (ancient Greek φύσις (English: physis)), people used in describing a natural “method” when describing a natural “method” of plant growth [38], and and and.For example, describing the words used by a tribe’s worship of a specific deity, it will not be distinguished.Because of this, former Socrate philosophers are regarded as the first batch of rigorous philosophers, and they are the first people who clearly separate “nature” and “customs” [39]: 209.Natural philosophy, that is, the predecessor of natural science, is also defined as knowledge about nature, and its trueness can be established in every community.The specialization of such knowledge is called philosophy, and it is the earliest field of philosophy-physicist.They are mostly contemplated or theorists, and they are particularly interested in astronomy.On the contrary, trying to use knowledge about nature to simulate nature (this is called skills or technology, Greek is τέχνη) is regarded by the classical scientists as the purpose of being more suitable for craftsmen of lower -class artisans [40].
The early Milly School of ancient Greek philosophy was founded by Taylor, and has successors such as Anxacisand and Anacisamii.This school did not complain about supernatural power when explaining the natural phenomenon (English: List of Natural Phenomena) for the first time.The Pythagoras school founded a complex digital philosophy [42]: 467–68, and made important contributions to the development of mathematics [42]: 465.Ancient Greek philosopher Li Keber and his student Democylt founded atomic theory [43] [44].The ancient Greek doctor Hippokrad established the tradition of medical science [45] [46]. Later generations respected him as “the father of Persided Father or Mother of a Scientific Field#Medicine and Physiology” “.[47].
A turning point in the early philosophical science history was Socrates’s example, which applied philosophy to research on humanities, including the attributes of human nature, political entities, and human knowledge itself.Socrates’ questioning method is found in Plato’s “Dialogue”, which is a dialectical method of de -pseudo -falsification: Through solid confirmation and eliminating false hypothesis that leads to contradictions, you can find better hypothesis.This method is a kind of reaction to the emphasis on the wise school.Socrate’s questioning method seeks the truth that is general, generally recognized, and can shape faith, and strictly reviews faith to judge whether it is consistent with other beliefs [48].Socrates criticized the old physics research form, and believed that it was too important to emphasize pure imagination and lacks self -criticism.According to Socrates’s “Confession Book”, he was later accused of corroding young people who corrode Athens because he “did not believe in the gods that the country believed in, and believed in other new spiritual existences.”Socrates refuted these words [49], but was still sentenced to death [50]: 30E.
Aristotle, 384-2 BC 322 BC, one of the early characters in the history of scientific methods [51].
Aristotle later founded a complete system of systematic philosophy: exercise and changes were described as the realization of the potential of things, and it depends on the type of potential with things.In his physics, the sun turns around the earth, and the nature of many things contains the purpose of serving humans.Everything has a form, one purpose, and in the universe of a universe (English: UNMOVED MOVER) in a universe.The Socrate School also emphasized that philosophy should consider the practical problem of a person’s best lifestyle (Aristotle divides this science into two parts: ethical and political philosophy).Aristotle advocates that when a person “has a belief reached in a certain certain way, and the basic principles that the belief depends on it, it is precisely aware of him.”Know the same thing.[52]
Ancient Greek astronomer Aristakus (310 -230 BC) proposed the universe model model for the first time, put the sun in the center, and the planets were running around the sun [53].The models of Aristax are not acceptable and believed that they violated the law of physics [53].The inventor and mathematician Akimid made a major contribution to the beginning of the micro -accumulation.54].Old Plint in ancient Rome is a writer and educated talent. He wrote a pioneering encyclopedia “History of Nature” [55] [56] [57].Botanical and zoology [55].Other scientists or original scientists in the classical era also include Tyorflastos, Oujilin, Heropchase, Ptolemy, and Galen.
middle Ages
DE POTENTIIS Anime Sensitive, Gregor Reisch (German: Gregor Reisch) (1504) Margarita Philosophica (German: Margarita Philosophica). The Middle Ages Sciences Connect our common sense (Common Sense) is located at it. A brain chamber in the brain [58]: 189, from the sensory systemThe obtained appearance is summarized here.
More information: Byzantine’s Science (English: Byzantine Science), the science of the Islamic World in the Middle Ages and the medieval European sciences (English: EUROPEAN Science in the Middle Ages))
The Western Roman Empire was destroyed due to the invasion of the barbarians, which led to a decline in the intellectual community in western Europe in the 5th century.On the contrary, the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the barbarians’ offense, preserved and improved the knowledge of the classical era.6th -century Byzantine scholar John Philoponus (English: John Philoponus) (ancient Greek: ιωάννης ι ιλόπονος) is the first [Source request] questioned Aristotle’s preaching in physics and noticed that I have noticed that I have noticed the physics.Scholars with defects [59]: PP.307, 311, 363, 402.John Photoboos’ criticism of the principles of Aristotle Physics has become the source of inspiration for medieval scholars and inspired Galileo in the era of the scientific revolution one thousand years later.The defects of German physics were widely quoted Fjibonos [59] [60].
In the late and early medieval periods, people used Aristotle’s methods when they inspected natural phenomena.The four causes of Aristotle specifies four “why”, which need to be answered as an interpretation of the same thing when the same thing is given. [61].In the process of decline and periodic political struggle of the Western Roman Empire, some ancient knowledge was scattered or in some cases.The general areas of science (then known as “natural philosophy”) and many basic knowledge in the ancient world were preserved in the early Latin encyclopedia writers such as San Iseso [62];The original text of Shidd was finally scattered in Western Europe, and the “Timai Europe” became the only well -known Plato work at that time. It was the only one in the original Latin readers in the early Middle Ages.Plato dialogue record.Another original book that was influenced during this period was Ptolemy’s “Astronomy”, which included a description of the solar system.
In the late classical era, many Greek classical literatures were preserved in the Byzantine Empire.Groups such as Nissemi and Christianism have done many Syrian translation work [63], and played a role in the process of translating Greek classical literature to Arabic.Therefore, many classical sciences of the category are preserved in Harry, and some of them have been improved [63] [E].In addition, the adjacent Sasan Empire established the Gundeshapur Academy (English: Academy of Gondishapur). Here, the doctors of Greece, Syria, and Persian doctors established the most important medical center of the ancient world in the ancient world in the 6th century. [64]Essence
Iraqida built a “wisdom home” in the Aja dynasty.Keny (Al-Kindi (801–873) is the first Muslim Xiaoyao School philosopher to introduce his description of the philosophy of ancient Greece and Greek (Englishistic Philosophy) to the Arab world’s efforts [66].The Islamic Golden Age entered prosperity from this time until the Mongolian Western Expedition in the 13th century.Haishmu (IBN Al-Haytham, also known as Alhazen) and its predecessors IBN SAHL (English: IBN SAHL (Mathematician)) is familiar with Ptolemy’s “Optics: Optics_ (PTOLEMY)), and with experiments as a means as a meansGet knowledge [f] [67] [68]: 463–65.In addition, doctors and alchemy warlocks such as the Persian Avon tensums and Laqi [G] have also greatly developed medical science.The whole book has been used until the 18th century; the latter found a variety of compounds including alcohol.Avilon’s “Medical Ceremony” is considered one of the most important works in medical history, and both of them have made significant contributions to the practice of experimental medicine, supporting their claims with clinical trials and experiments [69].
The taboos of Greece and Rome in the classical era made human anatomy usually not allowed at that time; however, in the Middle Ages, the situation began to change: Bologna’s medical teachers and students began to open the human body, and Mondino de Luzzi (English::Mondino de Luzzi) (about 1275–1326) written the first anatomy textbook known as an anatomy based on human anatomy [70] [71].
“Mengxi Bi Tan” adopts the form of encyclopedia, with hundreds of articles. Author Shen Kuo (1031−1095) is a scientist, politician, artist and scholars in the Song Dynasty.The fields involved are widely involved. The contents include astronomy, physics, mathematics, geology, geography, biomedicine, and then politics, economic and military, artistic and artistic, and arts and arts.Studying the social politics, science and technology, and economic aspects of the Northern Song Dynasty has important reference value, and it is a very important document for the history of Chinese science and technology.Among them, the recorded clay printing invented by Bi Sheng (990−1051) is the earliest reliable historical material in the world about live printing.[72]
By the eleventh century, most parts of Europe had converted to Christianity; more powerful monarchy regimes appeared; national borders resumed; technological development and agricultural innovation increased food supply and population.In addition, classical Greek literature began to translate from Greece and Arabic to Latin, so that Western Europe can have a high level of scientific discussions.[73]
By 1088, the first university in Europe (University of Bologna) had been established, and at first it was mainly trained secretaries.The demand for Latin translation has increased (for example, at this time the Tryo Translation Academy appeared); Western Europeans began to collect various documents, not only collected in Latin, but also collected from Greek, Arabic, HebrewTranslate into Latin.Handu’s “Book of Optics” hand copies of hand copies of the copy have been spread throughout Europe before 1240 years ago [74]: intro. P. XX, which was from Vitello, or Witelo).The book “Perspective (English: Perspectiva)” can be seen in integration.Avilona’s “The Canon of Medicine” was also translated into Latin [75].In particular, the Roman Catholic scholars began to seek the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy [H], and European Jear Dezhi, and Eujiri from the Byzantine Empire [76].The introduction of classical literature has caused the 12th century of the Renaissance and the prosperity of the philosophy of scriptures in Western Europe as a complex of Catholicism and Aristotle. In Western Europe, Western Europe has become a new geographical center of science.During this period, experiments were understood as a detailed process, which included observation, description and classification [77].Rojir Bacon is one of the famous scientists in this era.The philosophy of Economic Affairs has strongly focused on revelation and dialectical reasoning, and gradually became unpopular in the next few hundred years; at the same time, alchemy’s concentration of experiments that contain direct observations and meticulous records are slowly becoming slowly becoming slowly becomingmore and more important.
Renaissance and recent science
Prior to the invention of the telescope, Timu Brah designed a scientific instrument by itself to measure the angle distance between the two celestial bodies, making astronomy more accurate.Capeller’s Law is based on Brah’s observation (English: Tycho_brahe#Observational_astronomy).
Galileo Galilei is regarded as the father of modern science.[78]: Vol. 24, No. 1, P. 36
Main strip: the scientific revolution
Haishmu proves Ptolemy’s visual theory [79], but did not make any corresponding modifications of Aristotle’s metaphysics.The process of synchronization with the Scientific Revolution is that the elements of Aristotle, such as ethics, purpose theory, and formal causality, have gradually lost the market.Scholars are gradually aware that the universe itself is likely to be neither aimless nor ethical demand.From a physical, ethical, and spiritual physics, it has developed into another physics that is not important among them. This process has gone through several centuries.The Catholic Church’s aimed at banning the 1277 ban (English: Condemnations_OF_1210–1277#Condemnation_of_1277) of the University of Paris promoted the process.As soon as the prohibition is out, theoretically discuss the movement of vacuum and vacuum, which directly leads to the emergence of dynamics.
The new development of optical studies played a certain role in opening the Renaissance in two aspects. One is to challenge the concept of metaphysics that has been favored for a long time, and on the other hand, it has contributed to technical improvement and development such as dark boxes and telescopes.Prior to the beginning of the Renaissance today, Rojir Bacon, Witro and John Peckham (English: John PECKHAM) began to start with sensation and consciousness, and finally reached the same thing to Aristotle.Based on the cause and effect chain of Apperception (English: Apperception), each constructing a type of scripture -style ontology [80].The artists of the Renaissance used and studied (English: Perspective_ (Graphical)#One-POINT_PERSPECTIVE) a visual model later called perspectiveism.This theory only uses three of the four causes of Aristotle: form, material cause, and purpose.[81]
“Daming Jiajing Three-Year Calendar” (Huang Calendar or Astronomical Calendar)) is based on the astronomical calendar system created by the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) astronomer Guo Shoujing.In 1384, the Ming Dynasty Qin Tianjian adjusted the calendar.The book explains the moon phase in detail, and it also includes predicting when the day and lunar eclipse will occur.Zheng Heyuan used Guo Shoujing’s method to determine the longitude and latitude.[82]
“Compendium of Materia Medica” was published during the Wanli period. It is a masterpiece of encyclopedia. The author of this book Li Shizhen (about 1518-1593), a Sichuan native, is the greatest medical scientist, pharmacist and natural scientists in Chinese historyone.During 1552-1578, Li Shizhen carefully studied hundreds of resources and collected a lot of information.He was involved in the deep mountains of the mountains, collected first -hand herbal medicines and folk prescriptions, and checked various medical books at that time, and finally completed this great book with science, medicine and historical significance.”Compendium of Materia Medica” records a total of about 1,800 medicinal materials, including many unknown varieties of predecessors. There are also illustrations and about 11,000 prescriptions.[83]
In the 16th century, Copernicus explained the model of the solar system, which is different from the Geocyrd Model in Ptolemy’s “Astronomy”.The starting point of this work is a theorem, that is, the farther the planet is from the central celestial body, the longer the track cycle, and the Ptolemy’s model does not match this [84].
Cairple and other people challenged the concept of the only function of the eyes. The central topic of optical research shifted from the eye to the spread of light [81] [85]: 102.Capeler simulated the eyeball with a glass ball full of water, opened the hole in front of the glass ball, and simulated the pupil.He found that all the light emitted from a certain point in the landscape will be like a point at the back wall of the glass ball.The transmission chain of light ended at the retina on the back wall of the eye.However, the most well -known job of Cairple is to discover the three laws of planetary movement, which has improved Copernicus.Cairple did not reject Aristotle’s metaphysics, but described his work as the harmony of the universe.
Galileo Galilei’s innovative use of experiments and mathematics.He was blessed by Pope Urban VIII at the beginning of his writings about Cordini, but was persecuted after writing.Galileo used the Pope’s argument in the book “Dialogue of the Two Main World Systems”, but it was said to borrow a fool in the book.This is the disrespect for Urban VIII. [86].
“Geometry Originally” was provided by ancient Greek mathematician Ouclid (euclid, from about 365 BC-300 BC).The earliest Chinese translation of this book was translated by Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and Xu Guangqi (1562-1633).They set up fifteen-volume Latin texts based on Christopher Clavius (1538-1612), but only the first six volumes were translated.For the first time, this translation introduced European geometry and its strict logical system and reasoning methods to China.The Chinese translation of geometric Chinese names and Chinese translations of geometric points, lines, parallel lines, triangles, and ethylans are all named for their translations, which have been used to this day, and spread to Japan, South Korea and other countries.This book is an important book for Chinese scholars during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.[87] The book “Western New Law Book” was originally named “Chongzhen Calendar”.Valley’s universe system, and introduces the astronomical data and scientific achievements of Copernicus, Galileo and Kifelle and others.[88]
Li Zhizao (1564-1630) assisted Matteo Ricci to revise the “All Map of Kunyu”.In addition to “The Constitution of the Constitution”, there are also “Tongwen Guide”, “Rong Rong Comparison”, “Huanyou Interpretation”, “Detective Detective” and so on.[89]
The new technology of printing machine is widely used to publish new discussions in northern Europe, and some of them are different from the general views of nature in contemporary times.Linecaer and Francis Bacon published a discussion that advocated a new type of Famoso science from the philosophy.Descartes emphasized individual thinking, and advocated that mathematics should be used instead of geometry when studying nature.Bacon emphasized that experiments are more important than speculation.Bacon and further questioned the concepts of Aristotle’s form and purpose, and advocating such ideas, that is, science should study the law of “simple”, such as the law of heat, not assuming that the existence of all kinds of objects in Linlin existsThe special nature, or “formal cause”.This new type of science began to be regarded as a description of the “natural law”.The latest natural research methodology at the time was regarded as mechanical materialism.Bacon also advocates that science should first focus on providing practical inventions that can improve everyone’s lives.
Enlightenment
Main strip: Enlightenment era
Isaac Newton (this is a portrait of 1689), which has made a foundation in the fields of classic mechanics, gravity theory and optics.Newton and Leibniz are the founders of calculus.
As the pioneer of the Enlightenment era, Esco Newton and Geterfed Leibnitz successfully established a new type of physics now known as classic mechanics. This science can be verified by experiments and can be explained by mathematics.Leibniz has also borrowed some terms from Aristotle Physics, but it is used in the sense of new, non -purpose theory, such as “energy” and “potential energy” (Energeia’s implementation) Potentia (English: Actuality and Potentiality).This reflects the transformation of the object of the object: the object that has been pointed out by Aristotle that has a specific and achieved internal goal is now considered that there is no internal goal.In the way Francis Bacon, Leibnitz assumes that all different types of things are running in accordance with the same natural laws, and do not have different forms or purpose of purpose [90].It is also during this period that the word “science” is increasingly used to refer to the exploration of certain types of knowledge of a certain type of knowledge, especially the exploration of natural knowledge, which is the ancient “natureThe meaning of the word of philosophy gradually approached.
During this period, the purpose declared by the Institute of Science was transformed into wealth and inventions, which improved human life from the orientation of materialism (English: Economic Materialism).EssenceIn terms of Bacon’s words (English: Novum Organum), “the real and legal goal of science is to give it to human life with new inventions and wealth.”He does not encourage scientists to pursue intangible philosophy or spiritual concepts, and believes that these are not helpful to people’s happiness except for “a ray of light or solemn or pleasant contemplation.”[91]
In 1671, French King Louis XIV visited the French Academy of Sciences.
In the enlightenment era, the scientific society and the college dominated science, and largely replaced universities into the center of scientific research and development.Society and college are also the central places for maturity in scientific research.Another important development is the popularity of science in the increasing cultural population.Enlightenment thinkers (English: Philosophe) introduced many scientific theories to the public. Among them, the most well -known is the “Book of Encyclopedia” and the French translator of “The Principles” by “The Principles” by Norton)Promotion of Newtonianism.
Some historians feel that the 18th century in the history of science was a boring period [92]; however, the 18th century witnessed important progress in medical practice, mathematics, and physics; the establishment of biological classification; re -understanding of magnetic and electricity; re -understanding;And chemistry as a maturity of a discipline, laying the foundation for modern chemistry.
When the philosophers in the Enlightenment era applied simple concepts such as nature and natural law to every physical science and social science field at that time, they chose a relatively late scientific pioneer -mainly including Galileo, Boyi and Er Er andNewton -as a mentor and guarantor of this practice.In this way, the history of history and the social system on them in their opinion is not enough.[93]: 2
19th century
Charles Darwin in 1854 was preparing to publish “Species”.
The nineteenth century was a particularly important period in the history of science. In this era, many iconic characteristics of contemporary science began to highlight, such as the transformation of physics and life sciences, and frequent use of precision instruments, such as “biologists”, “The nouns such as physicists “and” scientists “have begun to emerge; as ancient labels such as” natural philosophy “and” natural history “gradually grow, the professional enhancement of natural personnel to study natural personnel and amateur museums have decreased; scientists have decreased; scientists have decreased.Multiple aspects have obtained cultural authority, economic expansion and industrialization of many countries, the prosperity of popular science writing, and the emergence of scientific journals.[15]
In the early 19th century, John Dalton proposed the theory of modern atomic, which originated from the concept of inseparable particle called “atom” called “atom”.
Michael Faraday studied the combustion and chemical reactions, and reported this study with a series of speeches in 1848 at the Wang Family Institute in 1848: “The Chemical History of a Candle of the Chemical (English: The Chemical History of a Candle) “, 1861.
John Herchel and William Hillwell systematized methodology: The latter used the word “scientist” for the first time [94].
Charles Darwin published “Origin of Species”, making evolutionary theory a popular explanation of biological complexity.His natural choice theory gives a natural explanation about how species origin, but this theory is widely accepted until a century.
The three laws of energy conservation, constant momentum and quality conservation seem to indicate that the universe is highly stable, and resources are not reduced.However, with the emergence of steam engines and the industrial revolution, people increasingly understand that the energy forms defined by physics are not equally useful: their energy quality (English: Energy Quality).The discovery of the laws of thermodynamics from this understanding shows that the total energy quality of the universe has continued to decline: the entropy of the universe has increased over time.
Electromagnetics was also founded in the 19th century, and this theory also proposed a new question that is not easy to answer within the Newtonian mechanics framework.In the last ten years of the 19th century, the foundation of the phenomenon of atomic atoms: X -ray discovery inspired radioactive discovery.The first sub -atomic particle was discovered the following year, electrons.
20th Century
DNA dual spiral is a molecule that encodes a genetic instruction that controls biological growth and function, and is used to known all cell organisms and many types of viruses.
Einstein’s theory of relativity and the creation of quantum mechanics have made classic mechanics replace by a new physics, which includes two theories that describe different types of things in nature.
In the first half of the 20th century, the development of anti -bacterial and artificial fertilizers made the global population growth possible.During the same period, the atomic structure and atomic nucleus were discovered, and the release of the “atomic energy” (nuclear energy).In addition, the 20th century war stimulated technological innovation, and its large -scale application triggered the transportation (automobile and aircraft) revolution, as well as the research and development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, space competitions, and nuclear arms competitions.
The molecular structure of DNA was determined in 1953.In 1964, the background radiation of the universe was discovered, which caused the theory of stability and constant state to be abandoned, and the big bang cosmic science founded by Georges Lemaître became the mainstream theory.
The development of aerospace technology in the second half of the 20th century allows people to make astronomical observations on other objects of space or near its space, including manned to land on the moon.Through the space telescope, people have obtained countless astronomy and cosmic discovery.
In the last 25 years of the 20th century, the widespread application of integrated circuits, combined with communication satellites, triggered the information technology revolution, as well as the rise of the global Internet and mobile computing (English: MOBILE Computing) (including smartphones).Out of the need for large -scale systematic processing for long and intricate cause and effect chains and huge amounts of data, such as systematic theory and computer -assisted scientific modeling, etc.[95].
During this period, the problem of environmental hazards, such as ozone layer is empty and the environmentalization (English: acidification) (including soil acidification, freshwater acidification (English: Freshwater Acidification) and ocean acidification), educational nutrition, climate change, etc.Public attention, environmental science and technology have begun.
21st century
The human genome is scheduled to be completed in 2003, determining the order of nucleotide alkaline -alkali -alkali alkali -alkali alkali -alkali base of human DNA, and confirmed all genes in the human genome, and drawing it. [96]The inductive multi -capable stem cells made a breakthrough in 2006. This technology can convert adult cells into stem cells, which can be transformed into any other types of cells in the human body.This has great potential importance to regenerative medicine [97].
A simulated event in a large strong sub -collision machine (LHC) compact μ sub -coil (CMS) detector shows the possible signs of the Higgs Bolk.
As Higgs Boson was discovered in 2012, the last basic particles predicted by particle physical standard models were also found.In 2015, the gravitational wave predicted by the general theory of general relativity was first observed for the first time [98] [99].
Tu Yu, the winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015, won awards in research on parasitic diseases.She found the new antimalarial drug artemisinin, and the World Health Organization recommends composite therapy based on artemisinin as a first -line antimalarial treatment plan.[100]
On August 16, 2016, the world’s first quantum scientific experimental satellite “Mozi” launched a successful success.[101]
Scientific branch
Main strip: scientific branch
Modern science can usually be divided into three major branches, namely science, natural science, and social science.Each branch includes a variety of specialized and overlapping scientific disciplines. They often have their own naming laws (English: NomenClative) and professional skills [102].Both natural science and social sciences are empirical science [103], that is, their knowledge is based on empirical evidence (English: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE), which can test their effectiveness by other researchers under the same conditions.[104]
There are also some closely related disciplines that use scientific knowledge to achieve practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. These disciplines are also called applied sciences.The classification relationship is as shown in the table below.
Science is unscientific
Forms Science Experience Science
Natural Sciences and Social Sciences
基礎 逻辑学、数学、統計学 物理学、化学、生物学、地球科学、空间科学 经济学、政治学、社会学、心理学、歷史學 儒学、儒家、哲学、宗教、神學、佛學、神秘学、Xuanxue, supernatural research, super psychology, yin and yang five elements
Application computer science, agronomy, medicine, dental, pharmacy, pharmacy, law, education, accounting, management, financial Chinese medicine, alternative medicine, feng shui science, past life treatment, belief therapy, astrology, divination, fortune teller, fortune telling
Form science
Main strip: form science, scientific outline § form science and science
A type of human robot (see Shadow Hand (English: Shadow Hand) system).
Form science refers to the science that mainly uses abstract form systems as the research object.It includes mathematics [105] [106], systemology, theoretical computer science, and artificial intelligence [107] [108] [109].The common point of formal science and natural sciences, and social sciences is that they all depend on the objective, meticulous, and systematic research on the field of knowledge; the differences in form science and empirical science areFormality, means to deduct reasoning, and do not care about the effectiveness of theory in the real world’s observation. There is no need for evidence (English: Empirical Evidence) to confirm its abstract concepts [18] [110] [111].Therefore, formal science is a priority discipline, and therefore, there are different opinions on whether they can really be counted as a class of science [16] [17].However, in any case, formal scientific methods can be applied to the scientific model that is used in structure and testing to practice realistic observations, which play an important role in experience science.For example, the calculus was originally invented to understand the movement in physics [112].In natural sciences and social sciences, branches that strongly rely on mathematics include mathematical physics and mathematical chemistry (English: Mathematical Chemistry), mathematical biology, mathematical finance, mathematical economics, etc.
Natural science
Main strip: Natural Science, Science and Science Outline § Natural Science
Show the pseudo -colored synthetic images of global ocean and terrestrial optical self -cultivation biomass, Seawifs (English: Seawifs) sensor shooting, NASA/Goda Aerospace Center and Geoeye satellite company.
Natural science is committed to obtaining evidence of experience (English: EMPIRICAL EVIDERENCE) through observation and experiments to describe, predict, and understand natural phenomena.It can be divided into two main branches: physics and life sciences (or biological science).Physics is also divided into some sub -branches, including physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science.The two main branches can also be further divided into more specialized disciplines.The predecessor of modern natural science is the natural philosophy of Greece since ancient times.Galileo, Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Newton have discussed the benefits of systematic use of systemic use and more relying on experiments.So far, the philosophical viewpoints, conjecture, and presentation are still necessary in natural sciences, although they are often ignored [113].The natural history of description and classification of plants, animals and minerals, etc., appeared in the 16th century, is replaced by systemic data collection in modern times, including discovered science (English: Discovery Science) [114]EssenceToday, the word “natural history” more often means observation description of the general public [115].
social science
Main strip: Social Science and Science Outline § Social Science
In economics, the supply and demand model describes the results of how prices are used as the result of the balance between the product supply level and the balance of demand.
Social sciences are concerned about the relationship between society and individuals in a society.It has many branch disciplines, including but not limited to but but not limited to anthropology, archeology, communication, economics, history, human geography, law, linguistics, political sciences, psychology, public health, and sociology.Social scientists have different philosophy stances (English: Philosophical Theory) when studying individuals and society.For example, empiricalist social scientists use similar methods to natural science as a means to understand society, so that the definition of science is more strict limited to modern science.On the contrary, interpretism (interpretivism) Social scientists will be more inclined to use social critical or symbolic interpretations, rather than build a pseudo -theory based on empirical evidence, so science is more significant here.In today’s academic practice, researchers often adopt compromise and use a variety of methodology (such as combining quantitative research with qualitative research).The term “social research” has also become a certain degree of autonomy, and its goals and methods are similar to researchers with different disciplines.
Scientific research
See: Research
Measurement
Main strip: Measure
Measurement is often used in science to compare and reduce differences.Even if there are obvious differences, the accuracy will be improved by measurement to improve repetitiveness.For example, different colors can be distinguished by the wavelength of light, without using the concept of “blur” such as “green” or “blue”.
The dependence between the basic units of the seven SI systems and their definitions: The unit of the end point of the arrow relies on the unit definition of the starting point.
Measurement often uses the international unit system (SI), including basic units: kilograms: kilograms, meters, Kandra, seconds, Angelvin, Kelvin and Moore.
The first basic international unit that proposed to experiment was Charles Sanders Porsh (1839–1914).[117] This directly affects Mike’s Sun -Mo Lei Experiment; Miker Sun and Mo Lei referred to his methods and improved.[118]
scientific methods
Main strip: scientific method
Any research method is considered to be objective (scientists cannot explain different interpretations of a single result generated under the scientific methods and cannot deliberately change the results when studying).Another basic expectation is that there must be complete data files for evidence, and the research method must be carefully reviewed by a third party, and confirmed that the method can be remake (but in quantum mechanics, prepare exactly the same complex quantum state stateIt is difficult to achieve; in addition, theoretical geography is difficult to conduct repeated experiments, but the laws are undoubtedly determined).
Generally, science is the pursuit of natural laws.The law of science has an important criterion, that is, there is no counter -example.Any objective existence, the phenomenon that can be repeated, if it is contradictory in the existing scientific laws, it is announced to the end of this law of science.This is also the application basis of anti -evidence in theoretical analysis.
Scientific methods use reproducible methods to explain natural phenomena.[119] Ideological experiments or assumptions are proposed from prediction.The prediction is proposed before confirming the experiment or observation, which is used to prove that it is not intervened.The anti -proof of prediction is a proof of progress.[120] [121] Scientific researchers propose hypothesis to explain natural phenomena, and then design experiments to test these hypothesis. This experiment needs to simulate natural phenomena under controlling conditions (control variables)The predictable observation results can replace the verification experiments).Overall, scientific methods can solve the problem of extreme innovation without being affected by subjective prejudice (also known as confirmation errors).[122]
The role of mathematics
In addition to the above principles, most scientific research currently depends on mathematical methods.When formulating an experimental plan, the unnecessary excess test will be optimized with the help of the optimization of knowledge (test design) to achieve more effort.For research with a high cost of a single test, reducing unnecessary tests can greatly save funds.When processing data, software such as SPSS, MATLAB and other software can easily analyze and process data.Common calculations that are difficult or complicated can be performed by software.The mainstream business software will fully consider the difficulties of users, so the interface design is mostly simple and clear, and it is easier to get started.Some professional software requires more learning time, such as widely applying R language.Many softwares allow people to develop special software function extensions and release downloads to facilitate research groups with different specific needs.When the researchers propose a new calculation model, they can immediately be implemented by programming on the basis of existing software.For the conclusions obtained from measurement data, the significance of the test results of the mathematical statistical method is needed.Researchers need to determine the appropriate statistical model based on different samples (large samples or small samples) and data comparison types (whether two sets of data comparison between data or multi -set comparison), and then enter data in the software and calculate the results of the resultsSignificant value.If the significant standards do not meet the standard, the paper generally does not have the hope of passing the review.There are also disadvantages of such industry status. Many inspirational failure experiments can not be published by opportunities; many people will regard the thesis data as a top priority and ignore their original intention to engage in research.
Although all science and engineering disciplines and most humanities are currently applying mathematics as a demonstration tool, mathematics cannot be made in various specific disciplines.Generally speaking, analyzing the problem requires some emphasis, and the factors that affect the problem that affects the problem first. Those who can be approximately processed first, rather”thought of.The main contradictions that work hard to pursue mathematics in all details are very wrong.[123] If there are too many influencing factors of a problem and it is difficult to distinguish the main and seconds, you can try to use the method of analyzing the main component analysis in statistics.Another example is that when using mathematical computing to analyze a biological model, compared to whether the calculation results are accurate or whether the operational skills are high, biologists will be more concerned about whether the results of the calculation can clearly reflect a certain biological significance (such as which independent variables are right for the right variables right?Is the relationship between the most affected by the variable?
In addition, although scientific theory is divided into different levels.However, the principles of basic disciplines may not be directly applied to the subject research at the complex level.This also led to the emergence of system scientific theories later.For example, physics is the foundation of chemistry. Many chemical phenomena can be decomposed into some physical principles at the quantum level.Although theoretical physicists respect and restore theory, they also acknowledge that the method of solving the differential equation in quantum mechanics cannot be used in general chemical practical research.[124] The multi -atomic system often encountered in chemical research is a very complicated model in physics, and it is extremely complicated even if the approximate method is calculated.Therefore, although chemists need to learn and understand basic physical principles, they will spend more time to master specific research methods for this discipline.Another example is the analysis of division and linear generalization. Although it is an important mathematical foundation for modern physics, students of physics generally do not study these two courses systematically like students of mathematics.Another example is that although both the Department of Physics and the Electronic Engineering Department will offer a special recurrence functional course, there are not many plural knowledge used in the general actual work and research. Most of them are limited to the primary nature of the plural, the nature of the internal accumulation, and the nature of the complexity.Integral transformation and common transformation.
Scientific philosophy
Main strip: scientific philosophy
“This is the key to modern science and the starting point of understanding nature. This concept, that is, observe things, record details, and hope to obtain information from it so that you can provide clues for another possible new theory … The next question is -—What does the planets rotate around the sun? In the era of Capeler, some people replied that this was because an angel stimulated the wings behind the planet, which promoted the planet around the track.In the same way, this answer is not far from the truth.
Richard Ferman “Science Value”
(The value of science)
In modern times, it aims to use knowledge (theory) and experiments to strongly clarify the clear laws of things under the premise of rationality and objectively.Based on the empiricalism advocated by Bacon and Mach (but Bacon underestimated the importance of mathematics in scientific research), Galileo is the experimental method of practical pioneer to obtain research on system knowledge about the world.Mainly natural science based on natural phenomena.Some people also include social sciences with social phenomena as the target, but most of the knowledge of socio -disciplines is limited to human society, and there is no proposition of mathematical formulas with strict accuracy or proven pseudo.And art, philosophy, religion, and literature do not belong to science at all.Modern science sometimes includes thinking science based on the existence of human thinking.
Regarding the core characteristics of science or the so -called scientific spirit, with the progress of human beings, there are different views. At present, it is generally believed that science has the following characteristics:
Reason and objective: Entering scientific research is not based on the premise of “Confucius Confucianism”, “God”, “Ghost”, and “God” (some scientists believe in religion, but “science” itself is the result of rational thinking).Based on the basis, scientists usually design experiments and control various changes to ensure the accuracy of the experiment and the ability to interpret theory.The possibility of scientific theory does not exclude the existence of “God” or “ghosts”, but just opposes the dishonesty of intentional pretending to be a ghost, avoiding the theological empty talk that lacks reliable evidence.Laplas believes that science explains the knowledge of the world alone without the help of monsters.
No evidence: This is the point of view from Karl Popper. In fact, human beings cannot know whether the theory in a science must be correct, but if there are some errors in this science, people can rigorously prove the error of this part.It is indeed wrong, then this science is in line with scientific science.
There is a scope of applicability: that is, it can not be the absolute truth that can be allowed to be in four seas.For example: Newtonian mechanics fails in the micro world.However, scientists still strive to find and explore whether there is some theory that can include all natural phenomena (at least in the physics world, and merging relativity with quantum mechanics is at least decades of ambitions).
General inevitability: Scientific theory comes from practice and must be returned to practice. It must be able to explain all the facts known within the scope of applications.If there is any indescribable counter -examples within the scope of applications, the entire theory is wrong.
The research process needs to be strictly controlled.For multiple important variables that are not easy to separate interactions, you can try to use statistical methods (such as analysis of variance) to separate the effects of different variables.
Science can also be divided into multiple levels such as theory and application.In addition to following the above principles, theoretical physics also respects the theory of restoration, and pursues the principles of extensive and profound descriptions with the simplest assumptions.Soviet physicist Langdao pointed out “We know a large number of physical laws that can be deduced by the few most general rules.” [123] Einstein also pointed out that everything should be presented in the most concise way.[126] Applied science is directly related to social development.In the interaction with social progress, the role of application science on practice has been continuously strengthened, and the scientific system itself has continued to grow, and its significant impact on human history is increasingly significant.
Scientific literature
Main strip: scientific literature (English: Scientific Litors)
When discussing non -original views or quoting the results of others, the source of information needs to be indicated to facilitate verification and inspection.Modern academic service agencies generally use computer database storage and retrieval documents.
In January 1665, the world’s first humanistic academic journal “Journal Des Sçavans”.In March of the same year, the first science and engineering magazine “Natural Sciences” was launched.Since then, the number of academic journals has gradually increased.In 1981, some people estimated that the total number of academic journals around the world had reached 11,500.[127] Academic magazines related to life sciences have been listed in the National Medical Library.Although it covers 39 languages, 90 % of them are English magazines.[128]
When the literature is required to quote the literature, it is generally required for a lot of reference materials.For the discipline of science and engineering, the Washington Post article states that “given the phenomenon of domestic academic plagiarism and fraud in China [129] [130], when quoting domestic literature, it is generally necessary to have several reference materials.”A few industry elites sometimes published in the publication or monographs, because they are almost all original, and they can be published smoothly even if they do not write reference materials, such as Ferman.
The current academic journals are widely used by peer review to perform academic quality barriers.However, the peer review mechanism cannot completely prevent academic fraud.[131] When publishing papers in well -known magazines, peer reviews will be stricter.However, magazines such as “Science” and “Nature”, which are very strict, may also occur in the dissertation fake incident. In the early 21st century, the well -known academic fake cases were Korean scientists Huang Yuxi fake incident and Japanese scientist Kobayashi Haruki.
One of the common reference criteria for evaluating academic journals is to see the size of its influencing index (IF).Journals that affect the index will be more noticeable.Too much emphasis on the role of the influence index is a superstition.In addition, the influence index evaluates the average influence of all papers during a period of time, and some people mistakenly regard the impact index as a level standard for judging specific papers and their submitters.[132] Researchers published in well -known journals are more likely to obtain more scientific research funds.Due to the higher attention of well -known journals, people with limited time will give priority to reading well -known journals.It will become smaller and smaller, resulting in a vicious cycle that is increasingly unfair to evaluation standards.[133] Eugene Garfield, the proposed index, also pointed out that the levels of different articles in the same journal are different. It cannot be generalized, and it should not be used as the standard for evaluating personal abilities.[134] A change of response is to try to submit a magazine that is slightly better than yourself when publishing papers.In 2005, physicist Jorge E. Hirsch proposed the H index for evaluating the personal research ability of physicists.
Scientific community
Main strip: scientific world
John Hewei and his wife’s observation of Elisabeth Hevelius at 1673.They are the first foreign members of the Royal Society.
The scientific community, or the scientific community, refers to all scientists who can communicate with each other, as well as their respective society and research institutes.Generally, it is divided into the sub -community according to the areas of different jobs.There are also many interdisciplinary and interdisciplinary activities.
the scientist
Main strip: scientist
German -born scientist Albert Einstein (1879–1955) founded relativity.He also won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics in the theoretical physics.
Scientists are individuals who are engaged in scientific research in a certain area of interest [135] [136].The word “Scientist” was first used by William WHewell in 1833.In modern times, many professional scientists will receive training in an academic institution. After the training is completed, a degree is a doctorate, such as Doctor of Philosophy (PHD) [137], Doctor of Medicine (MD), and Dr. Engineering (DENG) (deng)EssenceMany scientists continue their careers in various national economic departments (English: Economic Sector), such as academia, industry, administrative agencies, non -profit organizations [139] [139] [140].
Scientists have shown strong curiosity about reality. Some scientists also seek to use scientific knowledge to increase health, country, environment, and industry; other motivations engaged in science also include peer recognition and fame.The Nobel Prize is a kind of high -profile award.
Since ancient times, in terms of basic science (different from applied sciences), there is a small change in the characteristics of the characteristics, that is, the relatively abundant family situation is a significant advantage in full -time scientific research.Because of the relatively easy results of application sciences, and it is easy to transform into a productive forces that can create wealth, there will be no restrictions on the family situation of full -time researchers.
Women in the scientific field
Main strip: women in the field of science
More information: Women in STEM Fields (English: Women in STEM Fields)
Mary Juli was the first person to win the Nobel Prize twice: the 1903 Physics Award and the 1911 Chemistry Award [142].
A medieval “Geometric Original” translation of the beginning of illustration (about 1310), the women in the picture teach geometry.
Female scientists in experimental clothes.
Historically, science was a field of almost monopoly by men, and there were only a few exceptions [J].Women have been discriminated against in the scientific community; in a male -led society, this is similar to the situation in other fields.For example, women are often ignored when they are looking for job opportunities, and their work results are often rejected [K].For example, Christine Ladd (English: Christine Ladd-Franklin) (1847–1930) In order to be able to enter the name of “C. LADD” in order to be able to enroll doctoral training plans; Christine “Kitty” LADD has reached the doctoral requirements in 1882, but delayed delayIt was only awarded a degree in 1926. During this period, his academic achievements had both logical algebra (see the true value table), color vision, and psychology.Her work is ahead of famous scholars such as Ludwig Vitgustein and Charles Sanders Peirce.The scientific achievements of women have always been attributed to the tradition of the labor that they should play in the family circle.
In the late 20th century, actively recruiting women and eliminating the gender discrimination of formation has increased the number of female scientists, but the gender ratio in some areas is still very unbalanced; in the early 21st century, more than half of the new biologists were women.However, 80%of the doctoral degree in physics awarded men [source request].In the early 21st century, 50.3%of bachelor’s degrees, 45.6%of the master’s degree and 40.7%doctoral degree in the United States were granted to girls.They received more than half of psychological degrees (about 70%), social science degree (about 50%), and biological degrees (about 50-60%), but got in the field of physics science, earth science, mathematics, and computer scienceThere are less than half of the degree [144].The choice of lifestyle is also one of the main factors of women engaged in science; the chances of women from young future generations will have a lifetime of life and life balancing.The willingness to decline sharply during the graduate school, and the wishes of his male colleague will remain unchanged at the same time. [146]
Special scientific group
See: African educators, scientific workers and scholars (English: List of African Educators, Scientists and Scholars) and Category: Greek scientists
Because the overall education level is not high, there are few well -known black scientists [147] [148] [149].
Due to the problems of economic instability and talent loss, the Greeks are no longer glory in modern scientific development [150] [151] [152] [153] [154] [155] [156].
Learn
Main strip: learn
Physicists were in front of the Royal Society (1952, London).
The aiming to communicate and promote scientific thought and experiments has existed since the Renaissance. [157]Many scientists have joined the Society of Scientific Discipline, Professional or related discipline clusters designed to help their respective science disciplines. [158]Member qualifications can be opened to everyone, may also require some scientific qualification proof, or be a honor awarded as an election [159].Most scientific societies are non -profit organizations, and many are professional associations.Its activities generally include regular academic conferences to read and discuss new results, as well as academic journals issued or sponsored by the discipline.Some society will also exercise the functions of professional groups to manage the activities of managing their members from public interests or collective interests of the group.Scientific sociological scholar [Who?] It is believed that learning has a key importance, and the establishment of a society will help the emergence and development of new disciplines or new majors.
Science began professionalization from the 19th century, and its driving force was founded from the founding of a series of authoritative sciences (English: Academy of Sciences).In 1660, the French Academy of Sciences 1666 [161], 1863 of the National Academy of Sciences, 1911, 1928 of the Institute of Emperor William of Germany (English: Kaiser Wilhelm Institute).Since the establishment of the Academy of Sciences of various countries, the International Science Organizations, such as the International Science Council (ICSU), have also begun to promote cooperation between scientific communities in different countries.
Science and society
The relationship between science and other fields
See: Overall theory and system science
Science and religion
Although science has a big conflict with religion, it has no strict relationship with religion and mysteriousism.Especially since modern social changes, some religions have also developed reforms that adapt to social progress, and the contradiction between science has eased.Some evangelists have also begun to use scientific principles that support their religious perspectives, although they are interpreted very well.There are many well -known scientists in history that have religious beliefs, such as Euler and Koisi. Religious beliefs have not limited their scientific perspectives.The well -known physicist Eriko Fermi is an unknown person. He has contributed to the research and development of atomic bomb and the development of quantum physics.Ferman believes that (in the 1950s) has more than half of scientists without religious beliefs, and science cannot demonstrate that God does not exist [162] (Here, the specific meaning of “cannot” is that scientific theory must have evidence of pseudo.The proposition of “God’s existence” does not have evidence of pseudo -pseudo, so it is meaningless in the scientific category).The things that are opposed to science are mainly pseudo -sciences that are stubborn and old -fashioned, rejected rational anti -intellectualism, and the principle of violations of the spirit and objective principles of “science”.
“If a person can talk about the problem with everyone’s understanding, it is not difficult to know that this must be some kind of esoteric philosophy (meaning” it is not science anyway “).Everyone understands what I mean by a more honest rather than a ambiguous way. “
(“A Person Talks in Such Generalities that Everyone Can UNDERSTAND HIM and It❼Consided to be some deep Philosophy. However And I would like to be understood in an honest way, rather than in a vague way.)
Richard Ferman “The nature of the law of physics”
(The Character of Physical Law)
Science and philosophy
In addition to science and philosophy more down -to -earth concerns, the difference between philosophy and science is that philosophy is not widely recognized mainstream theory.In addition, there are a large branch of philosophy, which is contrary to the objective attitude of science, that is, idealism.Although philosophy has promoted scientific progress countless times, the connection with science is becoming more and more alienated.There are more and more scientific knowledge, more and more detailed, more and more difficult, and it is difficult for full -time philosophers to understand the cutting -edge issues of basic science.On the contrary, the rapid development of new concepts of science is a great impact on traditional philosophy.To.Due to the origin of science and philosophy (especially natural philosophy), the highest degree title of science is still called “pH.D.” today, that is, “Doctor of Natural Philosophy”.
Ferman said that because of science and suspicion, the communism and scientific spirit of communism and science issues with no atheism in response to all political issues and moral issues were not doubted [163].Other scientific criticism of socialist theory mainly comes from Austria and British philosopher Karl Poper.
Science and ancient traditional medicine
Some knowledge systems or methodology cannot be included in the modern scientific system, such as Chinese medicine.But in China, Chinese medicine is officially supported, and most people will also use the treatment related to Chinese medicine at some point.This is similar to the situation in other parts of the world, such as India’s traditional medical Ayurveda, which has also been officially believed and generally believed by the people.At present, the main research on Chinese medicine is to test the accurate tests of the Chinese medicine therapy in comparative experiments.In 2013, Steven Novella and David Collquhoun (English: David Collen) once pointed out that there was a strange phenomenon in the existing papers of acupuncture, that is, some people’s experimental resultsIt shows that acupuncture has a curative effect, while the experiments made by others have no significant effect.Therefore, the two speculate that acupuncture experiments may have false positive results.For why there are many false positive results, the two speculate that the placebo effect is played.[164]
Science and politics
See: Scientific politics
Science and popular culture
